The Physics of Space Security: Contents
Preface xi
Section 1 Introduction 1
Section 2 Policy-Relevant Implications 5
Section 3 Technical Implications and General Conclusions 13
Section 4 The Basics of Satellite Orbits 19
Motion in Space vs. Motion in the Atmosphere 19
Orbital Basics 19
Orbital Speed of Satellites 20
Orbital Period of Satellites 22
Orientation of the Plane of the Orbit 23
Elliptical Orbits 24
Appendix: Circular and Elliptical Orbits 26
Circular Orbits 26
Elliptical Orbits 27
Section 5 Types of Orbits, or Why Satellites Are Where
They Are 29
The Constraints of Geometry 29
The Motion of Satellites Relative to the Surface
of the Earth 29
Elevation Angle of the Satellite 32
Observable Ground Area 34
Transmission Time 36
Effects of the Local Environment 36
Interference 36
Radiation Environment 37
Effects of the Atmosphere 39
More Complicated Effects of Gravity 40
Common Orbits 40
Low Earth Orbits 40
Circular Medium Earth Orbits 42
Molniya Orbits 42
Tundra Orbits 43
Geostationary Orbits 43
Sun-Synchronous Orbits 44
Lagrange Points 45
Appendix: Details of Elevation Angle
and Ground Area 47
Elevation Angle 47
Ground Area Viewed by a Satellite 47
Section 6 Maneuvering in Space 49
Basic Satellite Maneuvers 49
Maneuvers within the Orbital Plane 50
Changing the Shape of the Orbit 50
Changing the Altitude of a Satellite in
a Circular Orbit 51
Changing the Orbital Period 53
Changing the Relative Location of Satellites
in the Same Orbit 53
Maneuvers that Change the Orbital Plane 54
Maneuvers to Change Inclination 54
Rotating the Orbital Plane at Constant
Inclination 56
De-orbiting Maneuvers 57
Reentry Heating 59
Stationkeeping 60
Appendix: Technical Details of Maneuvering 62
Changing the Shape of the Orbit 62
Maneuvering Between Circular Orbits 63
Changing the Period of a Satellite 64
Changing the Inclination of the Orbit 64
Rotating the Orbital Plane at Constant
Inclination 64
General Rotations 65
De-orbiting 65
Stationkeeping 66
Section 7 Implications of Maneuvering for Satellite Mass 69
Satellite Mass 69
The Potential Impact of New Technologies 71
Conventional Thrusters 72
Electric Arcjet Thrusters 72
Ion Thrusters 73
Nuclear Propulsion 74
Appendix: The Rocket Equation 75
Derivation of the Rocket Equation 75
The Time Required for a Maneuver 76
Section 8 Getting Things into Space: Rockets and
Launch Requirements 77
Using Missiles to Launch Payloads to High Altitudes:
the “1/2 Rule” 77
Putting Objects into Orbit 77
Factors that Affect Launch Capability 80
Placing Satellites in Geostationary Orbit 81
Air Launching 82
Launch Costs 83
Appendix A: Potential and Kinetic Energy of
Satellites 85
Appendix B: The “1/2 Rule” 86
Section 9 Space Basing 89
Space-Based Kinetic Ground-Attack Weapons 89
Constellation Size 90
Comparison to Delivery by Ballistic Missile 94
Space-Based Boost-Phase Missile Defense 96
Vulnerabilities of SBI 97
Constellation Size and Launch Requirements 98
ASAT Capability of SBI 101
The Military Space Plane 101
Appendix: Comparison of the Military Space Plane
Versus Multiple Launches 105
Deploying Multiple Satellites 105
Inspector Satellites 107
Section 10 Elements of a Satellite System 109
Satellite Components 109
Ground Stations 114
Links 114
Section 11 Overview of Interfering with Satellite Systems 117
Electronic Interference: Jamming and Spoofing 118
Jamming or Spoofing the Downlink 119
Jamming or Spoofing the Uplink 121
Laser Attacks on Satellite Sensors 123
Dazzling 125
Partial Blinding 128
High-Powered Microwave Attacks 130
Destruction 133
Attacks on Ground Stations 133
Laser Attacks on Satellites: Heating and
Structural Damage 134
Kinetic Energy Attacks 135
Electromagnetic Pulse from a High-Altitude
Nuclear Explosion 138
Appendix A: Laser Power Required for
Dazzling 140
Appendix B: Angular Size, Resolution, and Beam
Divergence 143
Angular Size and Resolution 143
Beam Divergence 144
Appendix C: Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattern 145
Appendix D: Power Estimate for Laser
Blinding 147
Section 12 Topics in Interfering with Satellites 151
Space-Based ASATs and Space Mines 151
Covert Space-Based ASATs 152
Space-Based ASATs vs. Ground-Based ASATs 154
Simple Ground-Based Pellet (Non-Homing)
ASAT 157
Uncertainty in Satellite Position 160
Inaccuracy in Positioning the Pellet Cloud 161
Timing Errors 162
Results of the Calculation 162
Conclusions 164
The Global Positioning System and Reconnaissance
Satellites 165
The Global Positioning System 165
Reconnaissance Satellites 169
Appendix: Calculating the Effectiveness of a
Pellet ASAT 172
Contributors 177
